1 Siege of Shule (Geng Gong) 75 CE, 2nd month 76 CE, 1st month Few hundred Han troops held an isolated garrison against tens of thousands of Xiongnu. When food ran out, they boiled leather armor and crossbow cords and squeezed water from horse dung. Geng Gong killed the Xiongnu envoy who offered him a kingship. Only 13 survivors reached Yumen Pass. Hou Hanshu; Zizhi Tongjian
2 Defense of Hulao (Mao Dezu) 422 CE 423 CE Held for over 200 days with “no day without fighting.” Defenders’ eyes became covered in sores. When the city fell, Mao Dezu was captured; he refused to submit and died in captivity. Zizhi Tongjian
3 Defense of Xuanhu (Chen Xian) 450 CE 450 CE Fewer than 1,000 men held Xuanhu against the Northern Wei. The Wei piled corpses outside the walls to the height of the battlements and used them as a ramp. Over half the defenders died; the city did not fall. Zizhi Tongjian
4 Defense of Xinye (Liu Siji) 497 CE 498 CE The Northern Wei built long siege walls around Xinye. When the city fell, Liu Siji refused to submit and was executed. Xu Wenxian Tongkao
5 Quanzhou (Liu Hong) 590 CE 591 CE Held for over 100 days with no relief. Defenders ate leather belts and tree bark. When the city fell, Liu Hong was captured; he refused to surrender and was killed. Sui Shu
6 Defense of Sanshengshu (Wang Rongshi) 6th century CE 6th century CE Realizing the city could not be held, Wang Rongshi burned the treasury and killed his wife and concubines to prevent their capture. When the city fell, he and his deputy refused to submit and were killed. Wei Shu; Beishi
7 Defense of Jingzhou (Liu Gan) 618 CE 619 CE Held for over a year with no relief. When food ran out, Liu Gan killed his own horse to feed the troops while eating only horse-bone broth and wood shavings. Captured, he shouted to the defenders to hold on and was buried to the knees and shot to death without changing expression. Old Tang History; Zizhi Tongjian
8 Yan Gaoqing defends Changshan 756 CE 756 CE Held with unfinished walls and few troops against Shi Siming’s rebels. The city fell after four days. Yan and his son were captured; they refused to submit and were executed. Over 30 family members were killed. Xin Tang Shu; Zizhi Tongjian
9 Siege of Suiyang (Zhang Xun, Xu Yuan) 757 CE, 1st month 757 CE, 10th month Held for ten months against over 100,000 rebels. Defenders ate horses, then rats, then paper and leather, and ultimately cannibalism occurred. Zhang Xun killed his own concubine to feed the troops. When the city fell, he refused to submit; his teeth were broken to stop him cursing, and he was executed. Zizhi Tongjian; Xin Tang Shu
10 Yuan Guangting defends Yizhou c. 762 CE c. 762 CE Held for years with no relief. When arrows and food were exhausted, he killed his wife and children and burned himself to death rather than be captured. Old Tang History; New Tang History
11 Anxi Last Stand at Kucha (Guo Xin) c. 765 CE c. 808 CE After the An Lushan Rebellion cut off the Western Regions, Guo Xin held isolated Kucha for decades. The garrison was finally annihilated by Tibetan forces; it did not surrender. Tang sources
12 Defense of Luzhou (Li Sizhao) 901 CE 902 CE Held for over a year. When the enemy sent an envoy to offer terms, Li Sizhao killed the envoy. The city fell, and he died in the final defense. Five Dynasties sources
13 Pei Ji defends Lingzhou 1002 CE 1002 CE Supply routes cut. Pei Ji pricked his finger and wrote a blood memorial begging for relief; no aid came. When the city fell, he died in the defense. Song Shi
14 Yongle City 1082 CE 1082 CE Heavy rain collapsed the wall, and the Western Xia attacked. Over 200,000 Song soldiers and laborers were killed; commander Xu Xi and senior officers died. Song Shi; Xu Zizhi Tongjian Changbian
15 Wang Bing defends Taiyuan 1125 CE 1126 CE, 9th month Held for over 250 days against the Jin. When the city fell, Wang Bing died by fire rather than surrender; street fighting continued after the walls were breached. Song Shi
16 Huo Anguo defends Huaizhou 1126 CE 1126 CE Defended “without sparing any effort.” Captured when the city fell; refused to submit and was executed. The Song Shi records: “among those outside the capital, only Huo Anguo’s death for principle is conspicuous.” Song Shi (Zhongyi zhuan); Xu Zizhi Tongjian
17 Zhenwu City (Zhu Zhao) 1126 CE 1126 CE Held for 100 days against the Western Xia. When the city was about to fall, he killed his own family to prevent their capture, then fought in the streets and died from an arrow wound. Song Shi (Zhongyi zhuan); Gujin Tushu Jicheng
18 Daizhou (Shi Kang) 1126 CE 1126 CE When the city fell to the Jin, Shi Kang and his two sons broke out and died fighting at the city corner: “父子三人突围力战,死于城隅.” Song Shi (Zhongyi zhuan)
19 Zhao Shilong defends Jiujiang 1131 CE 1131 CE Held for over 100 days against Li Cheng’s rebels. When food ran out and the main defender fled, Zhao alone rallied the remaining troops and people. When the city fell, he refused a rebel appointment and took poison. Song Shi; Xijiang Zhi
20 Qiang Ni defends Huanzhou 1160s CE 1160s CE Qiang Ni and his brother Qiang Zhen held Huanzhou against the Jin. The Jin offered inducements to surrender, which they refused. When the city fell, both brothers died in the defense. Song Shi, “Zhongyi Zhuan”
21 Liu Rui defends Wenzhou 1237 CE 1237 CE Held for over two months against the Mongols. Water was cut; people drank their wives’ blood. When the city was about to fall, Liu Rui gathered his family, gave them poison, and burned their bodies. He and his two sons then cut their own throats. Remaining troops fought in the streets with bare fists; over 50,000 soldiers and civilians died. Song Shi, “Zhongyi Zhuan”; Yuan Shi
22 Guo Xiama defends Huizhou 1234 CE 1236 CE Held for three years after the Jin dynasty had already fallen. When the city fell, he killed his family by fire, shot 200–300 Mongols with his bow, and threw himself into the flames. The source records: “城中无一人肯降者” — not one person in the city was willing to surrender. Jin Shi; Yuan Shi
23 Siege of Caizhou 1233 CE 1234 CE The last Jin emperor, Aizong, was besieged by the Mongol-Song alliance. When the city was about to fall, the emperor committed suicide rather than be captured. The city was stormed; the Jin dynasty ended. Jin Shi
24 Fancheng (Niu Fu and Fan Tianshun) 1273 CE 1273 CE After the city fell to the Yuan, Niu Fu led about 100 men in street fighting, was badly wounded, and died by fire with his subordinate Wang Fu. Fan Tianshun shouted: “I will live as a Song subject and die as a Song ghost” (生为宋臣,死为宋鬼), then hanged himself at his post. Song Shi; Xiangyang Fu Zhi
25 Shayang (Wang Huchen, Wang Dayong) 1274 CE, 10th month, 22nd day 1274 CE, 10th month, 23rd day The commanders killed the Yuan envoys and burned the surrender proclamation. When the city fell the next day, they were captured and executed; remaining defenders were massacred. Song Shi; Zizhi Tongjian Gangmu
26 Xincheng (Bian Juyi) 1274 CE, 10th month, 24th day 1274 CE, 10th month, 27th day Refused repeated surrender offers. When the city fell, he tried to kill himself with a sword, failed, and then died by fire. His poem included: “血战三年死未休” — “Three years of bloody war, death has not yet ended.” Song Shi
27 Tanzhou (Li Fu) 1275 CE 1275 CE Held for three to four months with no relief. When the city fell, he ordered his family killed and then died himself. Many residents and Yuelu Academy scholars committed suicide rather than submit. Song Shi
28 Changzhou (“Paper City, Iron Men”) 1275 CE 1275 CE Held for over 50 days against 200,000+ Yuan troops. The Yuan commander called it “a paper city defended by iron men” (纸城铁人). Yao Yin self-immolated; Chen Zhao died in street fighting; Wang Anjie was captured and executed. Song Shi; local gazetteers
29 Jingjiang (Ma Ji) 1276 CE 1276 CE Held for three months. When the city fell, he led street fighting, was wounded, captured, and executed after refusing to submit. Song Shi
30 Xinghua (Chen Wenlong) 1276 CE 1277 CE Held with fewer than 1,000 men. Banners read: “Live as a Song subject, die as a Song ghost” (生为宋臣,死为宋鬼). He refused repeated surrender offers and burned the letters. A traitor opened the city; he was captured, refused to submit, and starved himself to death on the way to Hangzhou. Song Shi, “Zhongyi Zhuan”
31 Huanghua City (Ma Kun) 1277 CE 1277 CE Held with no food or relief. When the city fell, he was wounded and captured in street fighting; he refused to surrender and was executed. Song Shi; local gazetteers
32 Battle of Yamen 1279 CE, 1st month 1279 CE, 2nd month, 6th day Final naval battle of the Southern Song. The Song fleet was defeated; minister Lu Xiufu took the child emperor Zhao Bing in his arms and jumped into the sea. Many loyalists drowned themselves rather than surrender. The Song dynasty ended. Song Shi
33 Ma Zhen defends Xizhou 12th century CE 12th century CE “坚守孤城” — held an isolated city. He refused inducements to surrender and died when the city fell. Gujin Tushu Jicheng quoting Song Shi
34 Kang Jie defends Fufeng 12th century CE 12th century CE A county magistrate, he refused to surrender, declaring: “吾今也当死于阵,不能降敌” — “Today I shall die in battle; I cannot surrender to the enemy.” He was killed. Gujin Tushu Jicheng
35 Li Shen defends Tianxing 12th century CE 12th century CE “坚守不下” — held the city without surrendering. When the city fell, he said: “吾岂使敌杀我” — “How can I let the enemy kill me?” — and committed suicide. Gujin Tushu Jicheng
36 Yingchuan (Xue Yuan and Pang Jian) 756 CE, 1st month 757 CE, 11th month Held for about 11 months with no relief. When the city fell, both were captured. An enemy commander noted they were “righteous men, each serving his own lord”; they were tied to trees by the Luo River and left to freeze to death overnight. Taiping Yulan quoting Tang Shu; Xin Tang Shu
37 Jiangyin (Yan Yingyuan) 1645 CE, leap 6th month, 1st day 1645 CE, 8th month, 21st day Held for 81 days against 240,000 Qing troops. Defenders killed 75,000 Qing soldiers. When the city fell, no defender surrendered; only 53 elderly and weak civilians survived the massacre. Yan refused to surrender and died. Ming-Qing transition records
38 Shanzhou (Li Yanxian) 1128 CE, winter 1130 CE, 1st month Li Yanxian moved his whole family into the city, vowing: “以家殉国,与城俱亡” — “I will sacrifice my family for the state and perish with the city.” He fought over 300 engagements. When the city fell, he fought in street battles, was wounded, and drowned himself in the Yellow River after seeing the Jin massacre the population. His family was killed. Song Shi; local gazetteers; Wulun Shu
39 Maolu Mountain (Li Laiheng) 1662 CE 1664 CE The last mainland Ming loyalist stronghold. After being besieged for over half a year with food and arrows exhausted, Li Laiheng burned himself and his whole family to death rather than surrender. Qing-era records; local gazetteers
40 Jiujiang (Lin Qirong) 1853 CE 1858 CE Held for five years and through a 17-month final siege. He refused surrender offers. After the walls were breached, the garrison fought in the streets; all 17,000 defenders were killed. Lin’s stomach reportedly contained only grass and tree bark. Qing-era records; Taiping sources
41 Anqing (Ye Yunlai) 1860 CE 1861 CE Held until starvation. Defenders ate tree bark, grass, roots, and boiled leather. They refused surrender. When the city fell, they fought in the streets and were massacred. Qing-era records
42 Chenliu (Zhang Jieran) 755 CE 756 CE Appointed just before the rebels arrived. The city held for 16 days before falling. Zhang was captured and executed at the army gate. New Tang History; Zizhi Tongjian
43 Hezhong (Hao Zhonglian) 1127 CE 1128 CE When the governor fled, Hao took command. With no relief, the city fell. Hao refused to submit and was killed along with his son. Song Shi, “Zhongyi Zhuan”
44 Frontier city (Jia Zikun and Chen Yin) 13th century CE 13th century CE Jia Zikun and governor Chen Yin swore to “defend the city to the death” (誓死城守). When the city fell, Jia Zikun, in formal court dress, died with twelve members of his family. Song Shi, “Zhongyi Zhuan”
45 Lüshun (Li Weiluan) 1633 CE 1633 CE During the Ming-Qing transition, Li Weiluan burned his own family and then fought to the death. Qinding Shengchao Xunjie Zhuchen Lu; Shengjing Tongzhi
46 Yulin (Ma Ming; Hou Gongji and father) 1643 CE 1643 CE When the city was about to fall, Ma Ming burned his whole family and fought in the streets, killing dozens of rebels before throwing himself into the fire. Hou Shilu and his son Hou Gongji held separate gates; when the city fell, father and son were captured and refused to submit, and both died. You Shiwei committed his whole household to the flames and then charged into the streets and died; Du Ren hanged his entire household. Ming Shi; Ming Ji Bei Lue; Qinding Shengchao Xunjie Zhuchen Lu
47 Bao’an (Xu Guotai) 1634 CE 1634 CE After the city fell, Xu Guotai fought in the streets, was wounded, and died by striking his head against a stone rather than surrender. His wife, concubine, and thirteen household members died with him. Qinding Shengchao Xunjie Zhuchen Lu; Ming Shi
48 Jinzhou defenders 1631 CE 1631 CE Besieged with food and relief exhausted; the garrison ate rats (掘鼠而食) and rationed grain by the grain. When the city fell, the commander dressed in formal robes, bowed five times toward the capital, and took poison. Huangming Sichao Chengren Lu
49 Dezhou (Zhao Shujiao) 1128 CE 1128 CE A Song imperial clansman held the isolated city for over 50 days, fighting six engagements. When some plotted surrender, he executed the traitor Jiang Zhe. After the city fell, he fought on, was captured, cursed the enemy without submitting, and was killed. Song Shi, “Zhongyi 7”
50 Taiping (Hua Yun) 1360 CE 1360 CE Chen Youliang besieged Taiping with 100,000 men against Hua Yun’s 3,000. Zhu Wenzheng submitted; Hua Yun swore never to surrender. Bound for execution, he snapped the ropes, seized a blade, cut down several enemy soldiers, and then cut his own throat after being struck by arrows. Ming Shi; Zhan Taiping
51 Liaoyang (Yuan Yingtai) 1621 CE 1621 CE After Shenyang fell, Liaoyang became isolated. Yuan withdrew the outer garrisons and flooded the moat. When the city fell, he burned himself to death in the Zhenyuan Tower with the official seal on his person. His servant Tang Shiming set the tower ablaze and died with him. Ming Ji Bei Lue; Ming Shi
52 Yanzhou (Deng Fanxi) 1643 CE 1643 CE Deng donated his own wealth to reward troops and led dare-to-die raids killing thousands. When the city fell, the supervising censor Wang Weixin died with twenty-one wounds; Deng refused to submit, was killed, and his concubine threw herself and his young son into a well. Ming Shi; Qinding Shengchao Xunjie Zhuchen Lu
53 Ningwu Pass (Zhou Yuji) 1644 CE 1644 CE Li Zicheng threatened to massacre the city if it did not surrender within five days. Zhou executed the surrender envoy Xiong Tong, fought seven days and nights, and killed over 10,000 rebels. After the east wall was breached, he led street fighting until his force was annihilated, was captured, cursed without cease, and was shot to death on a raised pole. His wife Liu led the household guards and died fighting. Ming Tongjian; Ming Ji Bei Lue
54 Jingjiang moon wall (Lou Qianxia) 1277 CE 1277 CE After Jingjiang fell, Lou Qianxia still held the moon wall with 250 Song soldiers and refused to surrender. The Yuan besieged him for over ten days. The Song troops feigned surrender to obtain cattle and rice, ate their fill, then sounded horns and drums, gathered around a huge cannon, and detonated the powder together, dying in a mass suicide: “sound like thunder, ashes without remainder.” Song Shi related records
55 Ganzhou commanders 1643 CE 1643 CE After Ganzhou fell to Li Zicheng’s forces: Ouyang Gun burned his family and died in street fighting; Liu Guodong led his retainers in street fighting until exhausted, then burned his whole household; Zhao Zongli killed his young son and then burned his family to death; Zhao Zongzhu fought in the streets with his sons, ordered his wife and concubines to hang themselves, and then cut his own throat. Qinding Shengchao Xunjie Zhuchen Lu citing Gansu Tongzhi
56 Linjiang (Chen Yuangui) 1259 CE 1259 CE When the Mongols reached Linjiang, Chen refused to flee. Aides tried to carry him away; he said: “I cannot leave this place in death” (死不可去此). When the city fell, he glared and cursed the enemy until he was killed. His head was hung on the enemy’s watchtower; when his body was recovered four days later, his complexion was still lifelike. Song Shi, “Zhongyi 5”
57 Long’an Mountain (Huang Jie) 1275 CE 1275 CE Huang Jie led local villagers up Long’an Mountain to make a stand. When the Yuan army arrived, the militia scattered, but Huang Jie refused to leave. He shot and cursed the enemy. Six arrows struck his face, and he did not flinch. He told his servant Chen Li: “Do your utmost; do not run.” Chen Li replied: “My lord is here; in life and death we are together.” Huang Jie’s body was covered in arrows like a hedgehog, and thirteen more struck his face and neck. He died leaning against a wooden palisade; Chen Li died with him. Song Shi, “Zhongyi 7”
58 Hejian (Yan Yinshao) 1643 CE 1643 CE Knowing the city would fall, Yan gathered his family in one room, piled firewood around them, and instructed them to burn themselves when the city was breached. He then returned to the walls to fight. When the city fell, he set fire to the official compound, bowed twice toward the north in full court dress, and leaped into the flames. His entire household of fourteen people died. Ming Shi; Hejian Fu Xinzhi
59 Shenzhou (Sun Shimei) 1638 CE 1638 CE Sun Shimei held Shenzhou for three days against the Qing. When the city fell, he cut his own throat at the corner tower. His father hanged himself, and thirteen members of the family died.